Organic Compounds of Life

Living organisms have to be able to: Exchange matter and energy with their surroundings,Transform matter and energy into different forms, Respond to changes in their environment, Grow, Reproduce. All of these changes are due to large organic compounds called macromolecules.

•          A macromolecule is a combination of many smaller similar molecules polymerized into a chain structure.

In living organisms there are three main types of macromolecules which control all activities and determine what an organism will do and become.

•          Proteins.

•          Carbohydrates

•          Nucleic acids.

The basic unit of life is the cell.   The cell makes up all living organisms that we know of.     Cells are in turn made of macromolecules that form inside the cell.  Other macromolecules control the formation of these macromolecules.     Metabolism is the breaking down or building up of macromolecules.    Generally, breaking down macromolecules releases energy that the organism can use as an energy source.    The building up of macromolecules requires energy, that is obtained from breaking down macromolecules.

 1. ProteinProtein is the main component in living cells that play an important role in the life process. Protein plays a role in the structure and function of all living cells and viruses. Beperan protein in the form of enzymes as catalysts in a variety of biochemical processes. As a means of transport, ie hemoglobin protein binds and transports oxygen in the form of (Hb-O) to all parts of the body. Protein also serves as a protector, as the antibodies if your body is possessed by foreign substances, as well as the control system in the form of the hormone. Protein is also a source of nutrition, protein acts as a source of amino acids for the organism is not able to form amino acids.Proteins consist of one or more polypeptides folded to form a 3-dimensional conformation specific.* Polypeptide are polymers of amino acids linked in a specific sequence.* Protein is composed of 20 different amino acids, each with a side chain (R group) is typical.* Cluster carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid will bind to the peptide bonds. Thus, amino acids are organic molecules that have carboxyl and amino groups.* In addition the group also found hydrogen atom and various groups are symbolized by R.* Protein has 4 structure consisting of the primary structure, secondary, tertiary and quaternary.* The primary structure of a protein is its unique sequence consisting of amino acids.* The secondary structure is pelilitan polypeptide folding it in a repetitive configuration, resulting from the formation of hydrogen bonds between the parts of the polypeptide backbone.* Tertiary structure is the entire three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide and results from the interaction between the side chains of amino acids.* Protein is made of more than one polypeptide chains (subunits) have levels of quaternary structure.In general, the protein has properties as an amorphous compound, colorless, has a high melting and boiling points are not fixed, insoluble in organic solvents and when dissolved in water to form a colloidal solution. Protein can be easily damaged because the influence of heat, the addition of the metal and the influence of acid or base.
In a review of protein chemistry is a complex organic compounds of high molecular weight polymer with a monomer in the form of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Protein molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur, and Phosphorus. Amino acids are organic compounds having carboxylate functional group (COOH) and amine (NH2) attached to a carbon atom (Cɲ) the same, the atom is also generally a C asymmetric. The detailed structure of amino acids built by a C atom that binds to four groups namely amine (NH2), a carboxylic group (COOH), a hydrogen atom (H), and the rest of the group R. This cluster distinguishes one amino acid with another amino acid.

Amino carboxylic acid causes acidic, alkaline amine. In solution, the amino acids are amphoteric, as acidic and alkaline media at acidic to alkaline. This is due to protonation, the amine group becomes - [NH3] and a carboxylate ion - [COO-], so that amino acids have two charge and is called the zwitter-ion

  

Classification of amino acids based on the nature and structure of the leaving group (R), as R groups that are acidic, alkaline, sulfur-containing R groups or hydroxyl, R as aromatic compounds, aliphatic and cyclic. However, the commonly used classification is the nature of the polarity of the group R

1.  Amino acids with R that is non polar. R group in the class of amino acids are hydrocarbon compounds with hydrophobic characteristics. This group consists of five amino acid compounds memilliki aliphatic R groups are alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine and proline, whereas the R group having aromatic structures include phenyl alanine and triptopan, and a sulfur-containing molecule that is methionin. This group has a structure as shown in Figure

  

2.Asam acids with polar but uncharged R, these amino acids are polar and hydrophilic or water-soluble amino acids compared to the first type. This group has functional groups which form hydrogen bonds with water molecules. Some amino acids are included in this group are: glycine, serine, threonine, cysteine​​, tyrosine, asparagine and glutamine. Compounds in this group are shown by Chart 

 

3.Amino acids with negatively charged R group, this group consists of only two amino acids that have a total negative charged groups, namely aspartic acid and glutamic acid. Both of these molecules have an additional group that is negatively charged carboxylate groups. This amino acid disajakan on Chart

 

 4. Amino acids with positively charged R groups. Lysine is an amino acid that fall into this group, it will have a positive net charge at pH 14. While arginine guanidine group-containing positively charged histidine and imidazole groups containing a few mengion. This amino acid group with the structure in Figure

 

Protein structure can be seen as a hierarchy, namely the primary structure (level one), secondary (level two), tertiary (level three), and quaternary (four levels)
- Primary structure of proteins is a sequence of amino acids making up the protein are linked by peptide bonds (amide).
- Secondary structure of proteins is a local three-dimensional structure of a variety of amino acid sequences in proteins are stabilized by hydrogen bonds. Various forms of secondary structure such as is as follows:
o alpha helix (α-helix, "torsion-alpha"), a laid-chain amino acids such as spiral-shaped;
o beta-sheet (β-sheet, "plate-beta"), a wide sheets composed of a chain of amino acids bonded together through hydrogen bonds or bond thiol (SH);
o beta-turn, (β-turn, "curve-beta"), and
o gamma-turn, (γ-turn, "gamma curve").

 

2. carbohydrat

Carbohydrates are a large group of compounds that are generally called sugars, starches, and cellulose (all of which are sugars or polymers of sugars). Generally sugars are a storage source of energy. By breaking sugars down into carbon dioxide and water, living organisms can release the energy that is locked up in them to use for energy requirements.Glucose is the carbohydrate that animals utilize mostly for their energy. 

Carbohydrates are one of the compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates serve as a source of energy in animals and plants. Carbohydrates are important such as glucose, galactose, glycogen, amino sugars and polymer. Carbohydrates come from a carbon hydrate with empirical formula Cx (H2O) y, a polyhydroxy-aldehydes (-C = O) polyhydroxy-ketones (-CC = O (COH) and turunannyalihat Figure 14.3.
Carbohydrates are built by polihdroksi and aldehyde group called aldose, while compiled by polyhydroxy ketones and groups known as ketosa.


Carbohydrates are divided into several categories including:1. Monosaccharides.This is the simplest sugar with the empirical formula Cn (H2O) n. Classification of monosaccharides based on the number of carbon atoms such as triose, heksose. Pentose, ribose, and deoxyribose found in the nucleic acid molecules. Other important Heksose galaktose, located on the disaccharide lactose, and fructose (levulose) forming part of the sucrose2. Disaccharide.Disaccharide is a sugar that is formed by the condensation of two monomers monosaccharide loses one molecule of water. Empiriknya Formula C12H22O11. This group is most important is sucrose and maltose in plants and lactose in animals.3. Polysaccharides.Polysaccharides are condensation products of many monosaccharide molecules by losing water molecules. Empiriknya formula (C6H10O5) n. When hydrolyzed produce simple sugar molecules. polysaccharides are the most important in living organisms are starch and glycogen
Simple carbohydrates are built by 5 (five) C atoms called pentoses. While that was built by the 6 (six) atoms C known as hexose. Besides formed by a number of C atoms containing polyhydroxy group, the more complex carbohydrate structures in the presence of asymmetric carbon atoms, the carbon atoms that bind to four different atoms or molecules in the structure tetrahedralnya. The presence of C asymmetry causes carbohydrate molecules are optically active, ie able to rotate plane of polarized light. In optical keisomeran carbohydrates are also present, molecules of identical composition but different orientation in space and optical activity. The simplest carbohydrates are found in nature contains three C atoms called trioses.

•          3. Nucleic acids.

–        Humans take in amino acids and utilize them to synthesize the polymers that are called proteins.

•          There are 10 amino acids which humans cannot synthesize themselves and must be in the diet, these are called essential amino acids.

–        Humans also take in carbohydrates and use the break down of the carbohydrate as an energy source.

–        When either of these is taken in in quantities above that that is necessary for the body, they are converted into fats in animals and oils in plants.

•          Fats and oils are a long term storage for energy sources.

–        Animal fats are wither saturated or unsaturated, but most are saturated.

•          Unsaturated fats are believed to lower cholesterol levels in humans.

•          Saturated fats and cholesterol are thought to contribute to hardening of the arteries.

–        Fats are stored in adipose tissue which has an insulating function, a padding (protective) function, as well as a storage function.

 Nucleic acids are one of the important macromolecules in living organisms. There are two kinds of nucleic acids in living things, ie in the form of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA (ribonucleic acid). Both are molecular carrier of genetic information. Types of polymer molecules of DNA and RNA structures that have the length of the repeated nucleotide monomers bond. The sequence of nucleotides in the nucleic acid to form a code that stores and forwards the information required cells in cell growth and reproduction. The nucleotides also perform energy transfer or reactant components from one system to another in the cell.- The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a unit of genetic inheritance known as a gene. Genes consist of DNA, which is included in the polymer compounds known as nucleic acids.* There are two types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).* DNA is the genetic material that organisms inherit from their parents. A DNA molecule is very long and usually consists of hundreds or even thousands of genes. The information encoded in the DNA structure of the program all cell activity.- * However, DNA is not directly involved in the implementation of the operation of the cell, a protein required for implementing the genetic program.* Proteins are the molecular hardware cells, while DNA is software that contains the genetic program. So the order flow of genetic information is DNA → RNA → protein.* Nucleic acids are polymers of monomers called nucleotides.* Nucleotides consist of three parts: an organic molecule called a nitrogenous base, a pentose (five-carbon sugar) and a phosphate group.- * Languages ​​nitrogen consists of pyrimidine and purine.* Pyrimidine has a six-membered ring consisting of carbon atoms and nitrogen (nitrogen atoms tend to take H + from the solution, which explains the term nitrogen bases).* Family members pyrimidines are cytosine (C), thymine (T) and uracil (U). Purine larger, cincing six-member ring fused to the five-member.* Which includes purines are adenine (A) and guanine (G).* A, G and C are found in DNA and RNA, whereas thymine is found only in DNA and uracil only in RNA.- * Pentose bonded to nitrogen base is ribose in nucleotides of RNA and deoxyribose in DNA molecules.* The only difference between the two is that the deoxyribose sugar does not have a single atom of oxygen on carbon number 2, so called deoxy.* In a nucleic acid polymer or polynucleotide, nukleotidanya connected by covalent bonds called phosphodiester bond between the phosphate of one nucleotide and the sugar of the next nucleotide.* This binding results in a spine with the pattern of sugar-phosphate-sugar-phosphate repeated.* Along the sugar-phosphate backbone is there an additional patch consisting of nitrogen bases-- LIPID* Lipids are one category of large biological molecules that does not include polymers. Lipid has no or little affinity for water. Hidrofobiknya behavior is based on their molecular structures.* Although lipids may have some polar bonds that bind with oxygen, but partly the lipid consists of hydrocarbons. Lipids include waxes (wax), fats, phospholipids and steroids.* Fat is composed of two kinds of smaller molecules, namely glycerol and fatty acids through dehydration reaction.* Glycerol is a type of alcohol which has 3 carbon, each of which contains a hydroxyl group.* Fatty acids have long carbon skeleton, usually 16 to 18 carbon atoms in length- * One end of a fatty acid that is a "head" consisting of a carboxyl group, causing functional molecules called fatty acids.* A binds to the carboxyl group is called the long hydrocarbon "tail". Nonpolar CH bonds present in the fatty acid tails are hydrophobic that cause fat.* Fats separate from water because water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other and get rid of fat.* Fatty acids are composed of saturated fatty acids and unsaturated. Saturated fatty acids are called if there are no double bonds between the carbon atoms that make up the tail, whereas unsaturated fatty acids are called if it has one or more double bonds, which are formed through the issuance of hydrogen atoms carbon skeleton.